12
DISSENY, COMUNICACIÓ, CULTURA,
1995
Polish avant-garde architecture of 1918-39 in relation to contemporary trends in EuropeIn 1918 Poland recovered
its sovereignty after nearly 150 years of subjection to the neighbouring
superpowers. That year, which also marked the end of World War I, became the
starting point for an exceptionally intensive, if unbalanced, development of
the country. Reconstruction from the ravages of war, and the new needs of the
State which in many ways had to start from scratch, required architects to cope
with an unprecedented volume of construction projects. The realization of those
projects would require an army of well-trained professionals. Before the
newly-created Technical University of Warsaw could provide them, the country
had to employ the expertise of the older generation of architects who, in the
absence of a Polish state, had received their education in a number of European
academic centres, such as Vienna, Dresden, Karlsruhe, Graz, or Darmstadt. A
significant group was made up of graduates from Russian universities,
especially from St. Petersburg. There was also a smaller group of Moscow
graduates. That generation, educated under the influence of historicism and
eclecticism, took the lead, which explains the conservative character of Polish
architecture in the first phase of post-war development, i.e. the
Twenties. Those architects, who created their works in a newly free country,
developed a number of major tendencies, very traditional in character, which
attained a prominent position and dominated the picture of Polish architecture
of that time.
The first of these was a
direction which was vaguely related to pseudo-style: decorative tendencies
which stemmed from the Secession (Art Nouveau). An example of this is the work
of Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz, especially his building for the library of the
Higher School of Business (Wyzsza Skola Handlowa) in Warsaw (1926) and the
Experimental Plant of that School (1925).
1. Jan Koszczyc-Witkiewicz, Higher School of Business in 2. J. Czajkowski, Polish pavilion for the Exhibition in Paris (1925). 3. W. Nowakowski, residential house in Cracow (1929). 4. K. Tolloczko, detached house in Zoliborz, Warsow (1925). 5. J. Beill, town hall in Slonim (1925). 6. A. Szvszko-Bohusz. General Savings Bank in Cracow (1925). The work of J. Czajkowski, author of
the Polish Pavillion for the 1925 Paris Exhibition also belongs here. The
direction they represented was sometimes referred to as «crystalline». It
showed distinct analogies with German expressionism, especially some works by
Höger or Sharoun. Expressionist tendencies are also clearly
articulated in the work of L. Wojtyczko, especially in his home for the
professors of the Jagiellonian University in Cracow from the beginning of the
Twenties and in the works of W. Nowakowski, exemplified by the residential
house in Cracow built in 1929.
The other important
development tendency was the so-called «manor style», with its clear references
to Polish architectural tradition. The bodies of the buildings were covered by
tall hip roofs, and the entrances to the interior were often through
four-column porticos with triangular pediments. Good examples of that style are
seen in the detached house in Zoliborz in Warsaw by K. Tolloczko (1925), the
Town Hall in Sionim by J. Beill (1925), or the railway station in Gdynia by R. Miller
(1926).
The third typically
traditional direction was «academic pseudo-classicism», which made references
especially to Palladianism in its Russian version. Its leading exponent was A.
Szyszco-Bohusz, a graduate of the Academy of Fine Arts in St. Petersburg. The
most representative building in this group is certainly the building of the
General Savings Bank (Powszechna Kasa Oszczednosci) in Cracow by Szyszko-Bohusz
(1925), which shows ample analogies with Russian classicism. Another exponent
of this direction was M. Lalewicz, author of the State Agricultural Bank
building (Panst-wowy Bank Rolny) in Warsaw (1926-27). A similar style was
adopted in the building of the Providencial Government and the Silesian
Parliament in Katowice, based on a design by Wojtyczko, Wyczanski, Zalewski,
and Jurkiewicz (1924-29).
The most characteristic
trend in the official architecture of the period, however, and one that was
particularly popular for state buildings, was the so-called «modernized
classicism». This architecture was characterized by a monumentalization of the
simplified, classically-oriented form, often employing large vertical divisions
supported by massive rusticated plinths. Prominent crowning conices appeared,
while the details of the architectural orders were either neglected or
extremely simplified. Examples of this style are the buildings of the Ministry
of Religions and Public Education in Warsaw by Z. Maczenski (1927-30), the
Ministry of Transportation in Warsaw (1928) and the National Economy Bank
(1928-31) by R. Swierczynski, the National Museum in Warsaw by T. Tolwinski
(1927-34), or the Syndicate of the Polish Steel Mills in Katowice by T.
Michejda and L. Sikorski (1931). This tendency
survived in the architecture of public buildings almost till the end of the
Thirties, and prominent examples are: the buildings of the Municipal Courts in
Warsaw by B. Pniewski (1935-39), the library of the Jagiellonian University in
Cracow by W. Krzyzanowski (1937-39), or the National Museum in Cracow by B.
Szmidt, J. Juraszynski and J. Dumnicki (1936-39).
Against this background
and partly in opposition to the four directions described, and almost totally
independent of them, avant-garde architecture developed. The formation of its
theoretical foundations relied heavily, as was the case in other European
countries, on the innovative developments in the plastic arts. We must
emphasize the contribution of those Polish artists born in Russia who studied
in Moscow which, unlike the more conservative St. Petersburg, had always been a
breeding-ground for avant-garde concepts. These were Edgar Norwerth, Wladyslaw
Strzeminski and Katarzyna Kobro. They had the opportunity to get in touch with
the avant-garde experience in Russian plastic arts in 1910-14, as well as in
the period following the Russian October Revolution. In 1919, Strzeminski
studied under Kazimierz Malewicz and later became his assistant. He had also
made personal acquaintance with Tatlin and other great constructivists. After
Poland regained its sovereignty, these artists returned to their homeland,
bringing with them the experiences of their youth. Other Polish artists
influenced by innovative Russian artistic concepts were Mieczyslaw Szczuka and
Teresa Zarnowerowna. The former was inspired by the constructivist works of
Tatlin and Rodchenko; the latter displayed some strong influences from
Malewicz's suprematism in her quest for a universal architectural form. The
only actual contact between these two environments took place on two separate
occasions. The first was a visit Malewicz paid to Warsaw in 1926, accompanying
an exhibition of his works. His suprematist ideas were reflected to a certain
extent in the doctrines promoted by the avant-garde groups of Polish artists
and architects, in particular the «Blok» and the «Praesens». The
abstract-geometrical spatial arrangements created by Malewicz, the so-called «planites»
and «architectons» were prototypes for modern architectural forms; they were of
great significance for the formation process of a new language of architecture;
therefore their influence on avant-garde formal research in Polish architecture
was enormous. Russian innovative architectural concepts were well-known among
the Polish avant-garde, and they
were initially met with vivid interest, which was reflected in numerous
publications in Polish. Later on, however, constructive dynamism was gradually
abandoned, because of the objection that it was too formalistic. The social
ideas that underlay the commune-house concept were criticized, the ideas of
de-urbanization also raised serious doubts. The attention of Polish avant-garde
architects was chiefly concentrated on the ideas of functionalists which flowed
in from Western European centres such as the Bauhaus and De Stijl. It is worth
remembering, however, that the Bauhaus itself owed a lot to the Russian
rationalists clustered around Moscow's INKHUK. We could thus speak of a
secondary impact those ideas had on the Polish avant-garde, via Western Europe.
Another significant
event in the history of the contacts between the Polish and Russian
architectural avant-garde was the Modern Construction Exhibition in Moscow in
1927, which was also attended by Polish architects. That was, in fact, the
debut of the Polish avant-garde on the international scene.
A significant role in
the development of the Polish avant-garde was played by the ideas propagated by
the «Blok» group, also published in a magazine of the same name. It was founded
in 1924 and edited by Mieczysiaw Szczuka. Besides the previously mentioned
Malewicz, articles and designs by such European celebrities as Mies van der
Rohe, Theo van Doesburg, Piet Mondrian, Thomas Gerrit Rittveld, van Hoff, van
Esteren, or Wills were published here. The list of names alone points to an
exceptionally strong influence from the Dutch avant-garde, especially from De
Stijl. The Polish supporters of the «Blok» postulated a functional
architecture, as they strove to combine social radicalism with artistic
innovation. A strong emphasis was put on utilitarianism, analogies with
machines, and the world of technology, 1926 brought about a schism within the
«Blok», as a result of which another group emerged, the «Praesens». Many former
«Blok» members were in its ranks, plus a group of young architects such as
Szymon Syrkus, Bohdan Lachert, Jozef Szanajca, and Barbara and Stanislaw
Brukalski. They published a quarterly under the same title (in fact, only two
issues were printed), where they published works by Malewicz, van Doesburg,
Mondrian, Oud, and others. «Praesens» was of a positively functionalist
orientation. Issues emphasized were those of utilitarianism, industrialization
of architecture, pre-fabrication, and standardization of building elements, as well as the social and economic
problems of building. Most of the members were positively left-wing, which was
especially manifest in the addressing of important social issues, such as cheap
housing for the poor, the building of creches and nurseries, hostels for the
homeless, and cheap, generally available health-service facilities. The
principals for such actions were, among others, the Social Security
Institution, the Association for Workers' Housing Estates, or the Warsaw
Housing Cooperative. The radicalism of those views and actions was, however,
kept within the bounds of the existing system, never reaching such extremes as
the commune-houses. The idea was not to «construct» a new society and a new
type of man, but rather to perfect the existing system and to level its
inconveniences. Thus, it was not an architecture of the revolution, although
its general character was no doubt determined by socially progressive ideas.
The «Praesens» became the core of the architectural avant-garde in Poland, in
that it not only created a new architecture, but also fought for and propagated
the innovative ideas within the CIAM of which they were co-founders. One
manifestation of Polish architects' joining international activities was the
fact that five Polish teams took part in the competition for the League of
Nations building in Geneva in 1927.
7. M. Szczuka, theoretical searching for spatial system (1924).
8. M. Sxzuka, project for the monument of freedorn (1923).
9. T. Zarnower, spatial system (1924)..
10. B. Lachen, J. Szanajca, S. Hempel,
competition project for the building
of the League of Nations in Geneva (1927).
11. H. Oderfeld, S. Syrkus, competition
project for the building of the League of
Nations in Geneva (1927).
The formal
characteristics of Polish avant-garde architecture indicate a convergence with
the formal-visual features that were present in the functionalist architecture
of Western Europe. There have been nomerous attempts at synthesizing all the
formal features of avant-garde architecture of the Twenties and Thirties. It
seems that the most succinct presentation of the repertoire of those means was
offered in the Twenties by Le Corbusier himself, whose ideas were soon to
become extremely popular in Poland. His experience up till then and his
deductions led him to put forward the five principles of modern archirecture.
These are:
1. House resting on piles (i.e. free ground floor). 2. Free plan.
3. Free façades.
4. Horizontal bands of windows.
5. A flat roof with a terrace garden.
The first four principles are a consequence of the introduction of skeleton construction and they would not be possible with the application of traditional building methods. It should be added that the bodies of buildings by Le Corbusier had a geometrical shape of cubicoids with even, usually white, outer surfaces. These features were possibly the reason for the scornful reference by opponents of the new architecture to «cigarbox style», «white architecture», etc. Although the summary presented by Le Corbusier has merit —primarily for its clarity and succinctness— it is inevitably superficial, as a result of the popular character of his publications. As such, it cannot claim to generalize the specific plastic and artistic features of the newest architecture of the Twenties and Thirties. Among the many attempts
at a synthesis of that kind, one outstanding example is the systematization
done by Hans Sedlmayr in The Revolution of Modern Art, which dealt with
the whole of the avant-garde phenomenon in plastic arts. The author isolates
four basic features of the latest art which, incidentally, were most strikingly
manifest in the avant-garde architecture of that period. These are:
1. A desire for purity. 2. Geometric tendencies (non-organic and constructivist).
3. Absurdity as the refuge of freedom.
4. Primitivist inclinations.
Bohdan Lisowski, a Polish researcher into the architecture of the 20th century, also attempted a formulation of the primary characteristics of the avant-garde architecture of the beginning of this century which were present in the concept of space and visual considerations. He states that the most prominent characteristic of this architecture is its predilection for the so-called «freedom of formations». This characteristic is most clearly visible in the following manifestations: 1. Penetration of space (i.e. communication between the enclosed space and the surroundings). 2. Visual multiplicity (i.e. equal visual intensity of all the views of an
architectural composition).
3. Simplicity, succinctness, and clarity of
formations, characterized by:
a) Employing large homogenous planes. b) Dislike of decorativeness.
c) Elimination of ornaments in favour of designs
and textures.
4. Treatment of regional external characteristics of architecture as variables. The above summary, based on some generalizations by S. Giedion and H. Sedlmayr, is one of the best formal characterizations of avant-garde architecture of the Twenties and Thirties. Most of these
characteristics can be easily found in the Polish avant-garde architecture of the
period in question. It is not easy, however, to answer the question of whether
those sets of formal features previously discussed were conceived in one centre
or another to be subsequently exported to other areas. We are afraid that an
unequivocal solution to the question of whether avant-garde ideas in Polish
architecture were formed under influences from Eastern or Western European
concepts may not be fully possible to find. We should suppose, rather, that
there was a relative independence of the occurrence of analogous concepts
(despite totally different conditions), a circulation and mutual penetration of
ideas from one centre to the others, and, finally, a constant clash of
contrasting influences coming from different directions.
A dynamic development of
avant-garde architecture in Poland can only be seen in the Thirties, which is
precisely when innovative architectural ideas in both Germany and the USSR were
stifled by political decision. Of the avant-garde centres in Europe, only two
were left: France and Holland. This fact could partly account for the
popularity of Dutch and French ideas in the Polish avant-garde architecture of
the Thirties. In Poland, two leading centres of modern architecture could be
distinguished: one being Warsaw, the other Katowice, the major town in Upper
Silesia. Warsaw was the seat of both of the major avant-garde groups: the
«Blok» and «Praesens»; it was also the home ground of such prominent architects
as the previously mentioned Brukalski, Syrkus, Lachert, and Szanajca. Here,
also, there was one of the two major architectural education establishments,
the Department of Architecture of the Technical University of Warsaw, where
avant-garde ideas were forged. In the Thirties, a number of architectural
realizations were carried out in Warsaw,
which were characterized by many of the above-mentioned features of the
avant-garde architecture of that period. In the field of residential construction,
there are the multi-dwelling unit in Saska Kepa by H. and S. Syrkus (1937), the
residential house in Katowicka Street by B. Lachert and J. Szanajca (1928-29),
a villa by B. and S. Brukalski in Niegolewskiego Street (1927-28), houses for
officials of the Social Security Institution by S. Brukalski and J. Szanajca
(1935), or the buildings of the Warsaw Housing Cooperative in Zoliborz by B.
and S. Brukalski (1935), clearly inspired by German or Dutch examples. In the
field of public buildings there are, among others, the postal building in
Nowogrodzka Street by J. Puterman (1935), the Children's Hospital by R. Miller
(1930-32), the Social Security Institution building by J. Jankowski (1930), the
«Prudential» building by M. Weinfeld (1933, reconstructed after the war in the
socialist-realist style), or the Horse Races houses in Sluzewiec by Z.
Zyberk-Plater (1938-39).
In the second important
centre of development of Polish avant-garde architecture, Katowice, there were
a number of realizations in the Thirties which were of a particularly high
standard, equalling that of Western Europe. We must mention the tall
residential house in Wojewodzka Street by E. Chmielewski (1930), the so-called
«skyscraper» by T. Koslowski and S. Bryla (1931-32) —the first housing tower in
Poland—, and the residential house for railway employees (1931) and a villa in
Bratkow Street (1931) by T. Michejda. The field of residential construction is
also represented by a number of houses in the so-called South District of
Katowice. Public building is represented by, among others, the Municipal Office
in Katowice-Janow by T. Michejda (1930-31), the Food Inspection building by T.
Koslowski (1931), the Silesian Technical Scientific Institution by J.
Dobrzynska and Z. Loboda (1928-32), the Town Hall (1929-30), the Insurgents'
House by Z. Rzepecki (1937), the Polish Radio building by T. Lobos (1938) or
the Silesian Library building by Tabenski and Rybicki (1934). Other interesting
realizations in the avant-garde idiom, scattered all over the country, are the
Social Security Institution building in Gdynia by R. Piotrowski (1935), the
Market Hall in Gdynia by S. Reychman (1935), the «Patria» guest house in
Krynica by B. Pniewski (1934), the «Wiktor» sanatorium in Zegiestow by Z.
Wardzala (1937), the TB sanatorium in Istebna (1929-37) or the State Savings
Bank building in Poznan by J. Dobrzynska and Z. Loboda (1937). An interesting
example of industrial architecture is the grain silo in Gdynia by B. Szmidt
(1937). Most of the examples quoted are characterized by the previously
mentioned features of European avant-garde architecture, which corroborates the
view that it had one facet in common, while local peculiarities were
maintained. Thus, we see horizontal bands of windows à la Le Corbusier,
free facades and assymetrical plans, flat roof terraces, simple Platonic solids
which penetrate each other after a cubist or suprematist fashion, dismissal of
ornaments, penetration of space effected through ample glazing and large even
surfaces of walls, textural effects, and geometrical abstractionism of the
composition of bodies and facades. The specific local traits, particularly
strongly present in Upper Silesia, are group windows (contained mostly in
horizontal, rather than vertical, bands); corner windows; juttings on
semicircular plans, generously glazed and protruding strongly from the facades;
balconies with rounded ends, one or two-sided; plain walls with, at the same
time, strongly segmented bodies; and so-called «marine» architectural forms,
like railings on terrace roofs and staircases, or small round windows letting
light into utility rooms. Most of the general characteristics, as described by
Sedlmayr, can also be observed, especially the desire for purity, geometric
tendencies, and primitivist inclinations. The innovative character of most of
these realizations is not only seen on the formal plan. They are also fully
modern in the technical aspect, i.e. in construction, materials, and the
technology applied. The carrying structure for most of these buildings consists
of welded steel skeletons, filled with light structural clay or concrete tiles.
The functional designs were also fully modern, based on the latest developments
in ergonomics, hygiene, and the physics of construction. We could thus conclude
that the output of Polish avant-garde architecture in the period between the
Wars, and especially in the Thirties, reached a level comparable to the
predominantly high standards of modern architecture in both Western and Eastern
Europe, as it maintained a distinct relationship to the innovative concepts
forged by them.
For Poland, this architecture
was a tangible, specific, and rational solution to a number of socially
important problems. It lacked the revolutionary flourish or the ambition to
rebuild the world. It was neither Utopic nor experimental in any sense, as its
formal and technical characteristics seem to fit well into the contemporary
domestic environment. Neither was it an import, a mechanical transfer from any
one of the European avant-garde centres, as it managed to develop a number of
exclusive, specific local features. It can be deemed a creative translation of
inspiration and stimuli from the outside world, enriched by unique indigenous
elements. In this, it does not differ from Polish architecture at any other time. Poland, due to its
unique situation between the East and the West, had always been Europe's
melting-pot, where various ideas blended to produce new values. The lessons
learned during the experience of that time have been well used to contribute to
further development. At the same time, the architecture of that period is a
closed chapter, and there is no return to it. The imagination of Polish
architects is inspired by other sources and absorbed by other problems. And
yet, who knows whether maybe one day that closed chapter will be opened up
again.
12. H. & S. Syrkus, multidwelling house in Saska Kepa, Warsow (1 937).
13. B. Lachert, J. Szanajca, residential house in Katowicka Street
in Warsow (1928-29).
14. B. & S. Brukalski, villa in Niegolewskiego Street in Warsow (1927-28).
15. S. Brukalski, J. Szanajca, house for the officers of the Social Security institution in Warsow (1935).
16. B. &' S. Brukalski, buildings of the Housing Cooperative in Zoliborz,
Warsow (1935).
17. M. Weinfeld, "Prudentialm building in Warsow (1933).
18. J. Dobrzynska, Z. Loboda, sanatorium in Istebna, Silesia (1929-37).
Northern fasade.
19. J. Dobrzynska, Z. Loboda, sanatorium in Istebna, Silesia (1929-37).
Southern fagade.
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Sobre l'autor
ANDRZEJ NIEZABIETOWSKI
Professor associat de la Facultat d'Arquitectura de la Universitat T è cnica de Sil è sia a Gliwice, Pol ò nia.
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